NCERT Notes Class-9 Civics Chapter-4: Working of Institutions

NCERT Class 9 Civics Chapter 4: Working of Institutions is an important chapter in the Social Science curriculum. It focuses on understanding the functioning of institutions in a democracy. The chapter discusses the concept of democracy and how it is not just about people electing their rulers. In a democracy, the rulers have to follow some rules and procedures. They have to work with and within institutions. This chapter is about the working of such institutions in a democracy.

This chapter explores the functioning of institutions in a democracy, including the legislature, executive, and judiciary. It examines the manner in which major decisions are made and how disputes are resolved. The objective is to understand how these institutions work together to carry out the government’s work. The chapter uses examples from the Central Government, Union Government, and Government of India, and encourages discussion of examples from the government’s workings in different states.

A Government Order

On August 13, 1990, the Indian government issued an Office Memorandum (O. M. No. 36012/31/90-Est (SCT)), stating that 27% of civil posts and services are reserved for the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC). This decision became a source of controversy and was a major policy decision, as it introduced a new category of SEBC, excluding other backward castes and tribes from the quota of 27% jobs.

The Decision Makers

The Office Memorandum issued by the Department of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions in India was a result of a long chain of events. The Second Backward Classes Commission, headed by B.P. Mandal, was appointed in 1979 to identify socially and educationally backward classes in India and recommend steps for their advancement. The Commission’s report in 1980 recommended that 27% of government jobs be reserved for the socially and educationally backward classes. The Janata Dal, formed after the 1989 Lok Sabha election, promised to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission. The decision was sent to the Department of Personnel and Training, who drafted an order in line with the Cabinet decision and took the minister’s approval. An officer signed the order on behalf of the Union Government.

The decision was a contentious issue, leading to widespread protests and counterprotests. The Supreme Court of India, in the ‘Indira Sawhney and others Vs Union of India case’, ruled that the order was valid and asked the government to modify its original order, excluding well-todo persons from the benefit of reservation. The Department issued another Office Memorandum in September 1993, ending the dispute and ensuring that the policy has been followed since then.

Need for Political Institutions

The government’s role in a country involves various activities such as ensuring security, providing education and health facilities, collecting taxes, and implementing welfare schemes. Institutions, such as the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Civil Servants, and Supreme Court, are responsible for these tasks. The Constitution outlines basic rules for each institution, and dealing with them can be frustrating due to rules, regulations, and meetings. However, these institutions also provide opportunities for a wider set of people to be consulted in decisions, making it difficult to make good decisions quickly and preventing rushing through bad ones. Therefore, democratic governments insist on institutions to ensure the smooth functioning of the government.

The Office Memorandum, a decision made by the Indian government, was influenced by Parliamentary discussions on the Mandal Commission’s report. The President of India and Prime Minister made statements, and the decision was not directly taken by Parliament. However, Parliamentary discussions brought pressure on the government to act on the Mandal recommendation, ensuring the government’s success.

Why do we need a Parliament?

Parliament, a national assembly of elected representatives in democracies, holds supreme political authority on behalf of the people. In India, it is called Parliament, while at the state level, it is called Legislative Assembly. Parliaments are responsible for making laws, controlling government leaders, and controlling government funds. They are the highest forum for discussion and debate on public issues and national policy, and can seek information on any matter.

Two Houses of Parliament

Parliament, a central part of modern democracies, is divided into two parts called Chambers or Houses. One House is directly elected by the people, while the second is indirectly elected and performs special functions. In India, Parliament consists of two Houses: the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The President of India is a part of Parliament, but laws made in the Houses come into force only after their assent. The Rajya Sabha has some special powers over states, but on most matters, the Lok Sabha exercises supreme power. The Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers, appointing the Prime Minister based on the support of the majority of the Lok Sabha members. If the majority of Lok Sabha members say they have no confidence in the Council of Ministers, all ministers must quit.

The Office Memorandum story highlights the role of the Prime Minister in taking policy decisions, but also the need for Lok Sabha support. The executive, at different government levels, is responsible for day-to-day decisions but does not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people. They are collectively known as the executive.

Political and Permanent Executive

In a democratic country, the executive is divided into two categories: political executive, elected by the people for a specific period, and permanent executive or civil services, appointed on a long-term basis. The political executive has more power than the non-political executive, as the minister is an elected representative of the people and is answerable to the people for all consequences of their decisions. The minister decides the overall framework and objectives for policy decisions, taking the advice of experts on technical matters. In a democratic country, elected ministers perform this role, as those who understand the overall picture take the most important decisions, not experts.

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

The Prime Minister is the most significant political institution in a country, appointed by the President. The Prime Minister is not a fixed tenure and continues in power as long as they remain the leader of the majority party or coalition. The President appoints other ministers, usually from the party or coalition with the majority in the Lok Sabha. The Cabinet of Ministers, consisting of 60-80 ministers, is the official body that includes all ministers. Cabinet Ministers are top-level leaders of the ruling party or parties in charge of major ministries, while Ministers of State are in charge of smaller ministries. Decisions are taken in Cabinet meetings, forming the Cabinet form of government. The Cabinet Secretariat assists the Cabinet as a team, providing background information and coordinating the workings of different ministries.

Powers of the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister holds significant powers as the head of the government, including chairing Cabinet meetings, coordinating departmental work, making final decisions, and exercising general supervision. They distribute and redistribute work to ministers and can dismiss them. In parliamentary democracies, the Prime Minister’s power has increased in recent decades, with political parties playing a major role in politics. In India, the Prime Minister has exerted immense authority due to his influence over the public. However, the rise of coalition politics has imposed constraints on the Prime Minister’s power, as they must accommodate different factions and align with the views of coalition partners and other parties.

The President

The President of India is the head of the State, exercising nominal powers and overseeing the functioning of all political institutions to achieve the objectives of the State. The President is elected by elected Members of Parliament (MPs) and Legislative Assembly (MLAs) and cannot claim direct popular mandates like the Prime Minister. The President has all governmental activities, laws, major policy decisions, and appointments made in her name, including the Chief Justice of India, Supreme Court judges, high courts, governors, election commissioners, and ambassadors. She is also the supreme commander of India’s defense forces. However, the President exercises these powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers and can delay or sign bills passed by Parliament. The President can appoint the Prime Minister if a party or coalition secures a clear majority in elections.

The story of Office Memorandum highlights the importance of an independent and powerful judiciary in democracies. The Indian judiciary consists of a Supreme Court for the entire nation, High Courts in states, District Courts, and local courts. The Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country, making its decisions binding on all other courts. It is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases and can hear appeals against the decisions of the High Courts.

India’s judiciary is one of the most powerful in the world, with the Supreme Court and High Courts having the power to interpret the Constitution and declare invalid any law or action against the Constitution. They also have the power to determine the Constitutional validity of any legislation or action challenged before them.

The Indian judiciary also acts as the guardian of Fundamental Rights, allowing citizens to approach the courts for remedies in case of any violation of their rights. In recent years, the courts have given several judgments and directives to protect public interest and human rights. Public interest litigation allows individuals to approach the courts if the government’s actions hurt public interest. This has led to a high level of confidence among the people in the judiciary.

NCERT Class 9 Civics: Chapter 4: Working of Institutions is an important chapter that provides students with a good understanding of how institutions work in a democracy. The chapter is well-written and easy to understand, and it includes a number of helpful examples and illustrations. The chapter concludes by discussing some of the challenges that institutions face in a democracy. One challenge is that institutions can become corrupt or inefficient. Another challenge is that institutions can be used to suppress the rights of citizens. The chapter discusses how these challenges can be overcome and how institutions can be strengthened.

Also Check:

• Democratic Constitution in South Africa
• Why do we need a Constitution?
• Making of the Indian Constitution: Constituent Assembly

What is the focus of NCERT Class 9 Civics Chapter 4: Working of Institutions?

The chapter focuses on the functioning and roles of various institutions in a democracy, such as the executive, legislature, judiciary, and independent bodies.

How does the executive branch function in a democracy?

The executive branch, headed by the Prime Minister or President, implements laws, formulates policies, and administers government affairs.

What is the role of the legislature in a democratic system?

The legislature, comprising elected representatives, makes laws, debates policies, and represents the interests of the people.

How does the judiciary ensure checks and balances in a democracy?

The judiciary interprets laws, resolves disputes, and ensures that government actions comply with constitutional principles, providing a check on executive and legislative powers.

What are independent bodies, and why are they important in democracy?

Independent bodies, such as the Election Commission and Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), oversee elections, ensure transparency, and hold the government accountable, contributing to the proper functioning of democracy.