A More Complex Social Reality

François Bernier

Following the arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500, numerous accounts were written by them detailing Indian social customs and religious practices. Some, like the Jesuit Roberto Nobili, even undertook translations of Indian texts into European languages. Among the notable Portuguese writers was Duarte Barbosa, whose extensive work provided insights into trade and society in south India. Subsequently, from the early 1600s onwards, there was an increasing influx of Dutch, English, and French travelers to India. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a renowned French jeweler, made multiple visits to India and was particularly intrigued by its trading conditions, drawing comparisons with Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Notably, individuals like the Italian doctor Manucci chose to settle in India permanently, never returning to Europe....

Comparing “East” and ‘West”

Bernier extensively traveled across various regions of India and documented his observations, often drawing comparisons between India and Europe. His major work was dedicated to Louis XIV, the King of France, and he frequently wrote letters to influential officials and ministers. Despite portraying India in a negative light compared to Europe, Bernier’s writings gained widespread popularity upon publication....

The Question of Landownership

Bernier’s Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations, critical insights, and reflection. According to Bernier one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land. He believed in the virtues of private property and saw crown ownership of land as harmful to both the state and its people. The empire owned all the land and distributed it among its nobles which had disastrous consequences for the economy and society....

A More Complex Social Reality

He felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures. The profit was appropriated by the state. A vast quantities of the world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange. Merchants often had strong community or kin ties and were organized into their own caste-cum occupational bodies. Other urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil ), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc. Some depended on imperial patronage, many made their living by serving other patrons and some served ordinary people....

Chapter 5 François Bernier- FAQs

What were the problems about cultivating the land according to Bernier?...